Biopolymers obtained by solid state irradiation in an unsaturated gaseous atmosphere

ABSTRACT

Disclosed are modified naturally occurring biocompatible biopolymers of plant and animal origin made by subjecting same to ionizing radiation in the presence of a mediating gas, typically acetylene to enable one to selectively enhance and modify one or more of the physiochemical properties of the starting materials which have a wide range of uses in medicine, food technology and other industrial applications. Notwithstanding the modifications, the biocompatibility of the biopolymer remains unchanged and no new or additional functional groups are introduced into the starting biopolymer.

This application is a division of application Ser. No. 09/805,385, filed Mar. 13, 2001 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,610,810.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The invention relates to a range of new products; processes for preparing them from dry biological polymers (biopolymers) using ionizing radiation in the solid—non fluid state in the presence of an unsaturated gas under specified reaction conditions and the uses thereof.

2. The Prior Art

It is known in the art to subject certain types of polymeric materials to irradiation in order to achieve a number of different goals, although to our knowledge it is not known in the art to subject such biopolymers to high energy irradiation in the presence of a mediating gas, e.g., acetylene, in order to modify the biopolymer so as to enhance its properties in one or more respects. The following U.S. Pat. No. 3,215,634 (Walker); U.S. Pat. No. 4,024,073 (Shimizu); U.S. Pat. No. 4,716,224 (Sakurai); U.S. Pat. No. 4,746,514 (Warne); U.S. Pat. No. 4,987,222; (De Ambrosi); and U.S. Pat. No. 5,376,692 (Park); and published foreign application WO 96/03147; (Fidia, S.p.A) are of interest, but are not significantly relevant. For example, none of the art teaches irradiation of polymeric materials in the solid state, including Warne ('514) who does use an ethylenically unsaturated compound application WO 96/03147; (Fidia, S.p.A) are somewhat, but not significantly relevant, which is not a gas.

Sakurai ('224) teaches the cross-linking of hyaluronic acid with polyfunctional epoxy compounds under certain conditions, none of which teach the use of ionizing radiation/unsaturated [alkenic or alkynic] gases.

Walker ('634) and Shimizu ('073) also disclose the use of various chemical cross-linking agents for preparing cross-linked polysaccharide products.

De Ambrosi ('222) discloses the controlled preparation of low molecular weight glucosaminoglycans by depolymerizing high molecular weight glucosaminoglycans using γ radiation.

Warne ('514) teaches away from the invention. Warne discloses the preparation of cross-linked hydrogels by subjecting a polysaccharide, specifically, nothing of higher molecular weight than a pentasaccharide, to ionizing radiation in the presence of an ethylenically unsaturated compound (but not a gas) having at least one hydrophilic group.

Park ('692) discloses proteins, e.g., albumin, that are functionalized so that when the albumin is bonded to a blood compatible substrate, and after treatment with radiation, free radicals formed on both the protein and the substrate chemically bind to one another. This reference does not teach or suggest cross-linking the polymers by using ionizing radiation in the presence of an unsaturated gas which forms part of the cross-link.

Fidia (PCT application no. WO 96/03147) teaches the synthesis of chemical gels from polyelectrolyte polysaccharides, including HA and HA-benzyl ester by γ-irradiation, preceded by functionalizing to introduce olefinic bonds, into the structure thereof. The only functionalizing agent. disclosed is glycidyl acrylate. Other, less relevant foreign patents such as EP 000 038 426; JP 360,143,991; JP 363,301,234; JP 401,118,529; DE 004,123,889; DE 004,124,338; and JP 406,073,102 are noted.

Non-patent literature relating to the subject matter of this invention, particularly, certain studies conducted on some of the starting materials used herein and the effect of ionizing radiations on uncharged polysaccharides (such as starch and cellulose) and on polyelectrolyte polysaccharides (such as hyaluronic acid and its cross-linked derivative hylan, alginates, heparin etc) is to induce degradation, with main chain scission leading to a decrease in molecular weight and viscosity are discussed in:

The effect of sterilizing doses of γ-irradiation on the molecular weight and emulsification properties of gum arabic; Blake, et al, Food Hydrocolloids 1988, Vol.2 No.5, p.407-415; The effects of radiation on carbohydrates (Phillips, G., Chapter 26 pages 1217-1297 in “The Carbohydrates”, second edition. (Eds. Ward Pigman/Derek Horton), Academic Press Inc. New York, 1980); Free radical formation and degradation of cellulose by ionizing radiations. (Nakamura et al. Polymer Photochemistry, 1985, 6, 135-159); Photochemistry and radiation chemistry of cellulose (Phillips et al. Cellulose Chemistry and Its Applications 1985, 290-311); Radiation effects on the biological activity and molecular weight parameters of heparin. (Edwards et al. Carbohydrate Polymers, 1985, 5, 473-478); The radiation-induced degradation of hyaluronic acid. (Deeble et al. Radiat.Phys.Chem. 1991, Vol.37, No.1, 115-118); Susceptibility of Connective Tissue: Biomaterials to Radiation. (Phillips et al. Journal of Korea Biomaterial Research Institute, Vol. 1, No. 1, August 1991, p.92); The enhanced stability of the cross-linked hylan structure to hydroxyl radicals compared with the uncross-linked hyaluronan. (Al-Assaf et al. Radiat. Phys.Chem. 1995, Vol 46, 207-217); Identification of radicals from hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid) and cross-linked derivatives using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. (Al-Assaf et al. Carbohydrate Polymers, 1999, Vol.38, 17-22); The role of the proteinaceous component on the emulsifying properties of gum arabic. (Randall et al. Food Hydrocolloids, 1988, 2, No.2, 131-140); Structural and chemical properties of gum arabic. Their practical impact. (Phillips et al. Proceedings Gum Arabic Symposium, ZDS, Solingen, Germany, Jun. 6-8, 1988); The influence of structure and technology on gum arabic functionality. (Phillips, G., Supplement to Food Review February/March, 1988, pp.64-68); Fractionation and characterization of gum from Acacia senegal. (Randall et al. Food Hydrocolloids, 1989, Vol.3, No.1, p.65-75); The molecular characterization of the polysaccharide gum from Acacia senegal. (Osman et al. Carbohydrate Research, 1993, 246, pp. 303); The Classification of Natural Gums. Part III. Acacia senegal and Related Species (Gum Arabic); (Jurasek et al. Food Hydrocolloids, 1993, Vol.7, No.3, pp. 255-280); Acacia gum (Gum Arabic): a nutritional fibre; metabolism and calorific value. (Phillips, G., Food Additives and Contaminants, 1998, Vol. 15 No.3, 251-264); and, A review of recent developments on the regulatory, structural and functional aspects of gum arabic. (Islam et al. Food Hydrocolloids, 1997, Vol 11 (4), pp 357-365). Fractionation and characterization of gum from Acacia Senegal. (Randall et al. Food Hydrocolloids, 1989, Vol.3, pp.65-75) The molecular characterization of the polysaccharide gum from Acacia senegal. (Osman et al. Carbohydrate Research, 1993, 246, pp. 303); The Classification of Natural Gums. Part III. Acacia Senegal and Related Species (Gum Arabic) (Jurasek et al. Food Hydrocolloids, 1993, Vol.7, No.3, pp. 255-280).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides an extremely broad category of new biopolymers having dramatically improved properties in comparison with the starting biopolymers. The molecular weights of these materials can be increased in a controlled manner to provide new physical and chemical functionalities (for example emulsification and water binding). Aqueous solutions of the new products can be produced with literally any desired viscosity and/or viscoelasticity. The biopolymers can be converted into new hydrophilic gels (hydrogels) of defined particular size and having specified micromechanical properties. The changes can be accomplished without the introduction of new chemical substituents, and hence, the new materials retain the inherent biocompatibility of the starting, or parent biopolymer. One or more different biopolymers can be used together in the process to yield new bio-copolymers.

As used herein the term biopolymer and biological polymer is understood to mean a polymer derived from a biological source, whether plant, including microorganisms or animal.

The biopolymers contemplated by the invention comprise unsubstituted biopolymers extending over the entire field of plant and animal derived polysaccharides, whether charged or uncharged, as well as proteins directly derived from animal connective tissue sources such as collagen, gelatin, and from human and animal products, such as casein, combinations of one or more such polysaccharides with one or more proteins of plant origin—such as arabinogalactan proteins, biological tissues and materials derived therefrom used for tissue replacement and transplantation, either finished or partially finished and which are made or formed from one or more of such biopolymers or combinations thereof with the other aforesaid materials. The biopolymers to be treated to form the new materials according to the process of the invention do not need to be modified in any way prior to treatment, for example, by introducing any functionalizing groups which might, in other processes be necessary to activate the biopolymer or make it more reactive.

Illustrative examples of the biopolymers contemplated by this invention include: acacia plant exudates, such as acacia senegal and acacia seyal, representing the arabinogalactan proteins present in all plants; dextran and related bacterial polysaccharides; chemically modified polysaccharides such as carboxymethyl cellulose; gelling polysaccharides from either bacterial origin (xanthan) or plant (carrageenan) or fruit origin (pectin); animal connective tissue polysaccharides and proteins, and combinations thereof, such as hyaluronan, proteoglycans and chemically modified animal derived polysaccharides such as hylan; and interactive combinations of these materials which can be associated, bonded and adhered in specific combinations.

In carrying out the process of the invention for producing the new materials from the starting biopolymers, it is preferred that the biopolymer be in its original solid state, i.e., dry, in an atmosphere comprising a mediating agent, preferably a low molecular weight unsaturated alkenic or alkynic gas such as ethylene, propylene or acetylene, preferably acetylene. Before introducing the mediating gas to the reaction site, the site must be flushed to remove therefrom any active, oxygen containing atmosphere. All the mediating gas is removed after completion of the process and therefore, the resulting new materials do not contain any of the mediating gas.

The biopolymeric system (or the finished or partially finished product made therefrom) from which the active atmosphere has been removed is then saturated with the mediating gas at atmospheric pressure and exposed to a source of ionizing radiation which may be either a radioactive isotope such as ⁶⁰Co (γ-rays) or radiation generated by a high energy (250 KeV to 10 MeV) electron accelerator or X-rays generated by the accelerator or any other suitable device.

The minimum absorbed radiation dose may vary from 1 kGy to 50 kGy, depending on the structure of the biopolymer, whether branched or long-chain nature of the product desired, whether of increased molecular weight to form a readily water soluble product or to form either a gel or a membrane product. As a general guide, highly branched polysaccharide structures can produce a 4-fold increase in molecular weight with doses up to 10 kGy and gels with doses up to 50 kGy, whereas straight chain structures can yield a similar change with doses as low as 1-3 kGy. Proteins require doses up to 25 kGy to achieve a similar result. Blends and combined adhesive systems require careful dose selection according to the composition of the systems

Following the irradiation step in the presence of the gaseous mediating agent, and in order to remove any activated species produced by the radiation system, the resulting biopolymer system or new material is subjected to heat treatment (annealing) in the absence of oxygen at elevated temperatures ranging from 40° C. to 120° C. depending on the heat stability of the biopolymer system which is being modified. This annealing step may ideally be carried out in the presence of the unsaturated gaseous atmosphere or, alternatively, in the presence of an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or in a vacuum oven. The former can increase the amount of new product formation, and the latter provides a suitable mechanism for termination of the process.

Following the annealing step, any residual gaseous mediating agent is removed from the modified biopolymeric system by aerating the system, and if necessary, the application of a vacuum process to the treated polymer. This will depend on the retention ability of the material for the gas which depends on the porosity of the solid system.

The resulting new biopolymers obtained by the above-described treatment are characterized by changes in the following parameters when comparing the starting material with the new biopolymers:

-   -   a) molecular weight can be increased 4-5 fold;     -   b) increased water binding usually parallels that of the         increase in molecular weight;     -   c) emulsion with droplet sizes of the order 1 μm can be achieved         using reduced concentrations of the biopolymers;     -   d) a range of changes in viscosity and viscoelasticity of up to         1000 fold; and     -   e) there is observed formation of hydrogels having particle         sizes from 150-2000 μm.

The molecular weight of the starting biopolymer can be increased in a controlled manner to provide a new generation of products with enhanced properties without losing the basic functionalities of the parent biopolymer. The increased molecular parameters allow greater water binding, improved physical functionalities, such as lower emulsion droplet formation, new binding capabilities and functions to other polymers, whether charged or uncharged, and better fabrication qualities for drug and small ion release.

Water soluble products of increased or decreased viscosity and/or viscoelasticity can be produced. Thus, new food, industrial and medical products can be produced.

Of singular significance to this invention is the fact that no significant or identifiable chemical changes are introduced into the structure of the biopolymer as a result of the process. Thus, any new product made according to the invention will be used in practice in substantially the same way as the parent biopolymer.

Hydrophilic gels (hydrogels) can be produced of a defined particle size and specified micro-mechanical properties.

The products are as biocompatible as are the parent biopolymers.

A wide range of new products can be obtained by changes in the process parameters and these are an integral part of the spirit and purpose of the present invention, and are included within the scope of the claims made herein. The process does not yield a single new product, or even a series of new products within a particular type of biopolymer, but rather, it offers the opportunity of producing a family of new products, each of which may be tailor made for specific applications.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The drawings in this application comprise FIGS. 1 through 22 c, a total of 41 figures on 25 sheets. Each of the figures listed and described below are graphs and are referred to in one or more of the Examples in the section entitled Detailed Description of the Invention.

There follows a list of each of the drawings with a description of what they show:

FIG. 1 Differential molar mass distribution of control and irradiated Acacia Senegal (spray dried)

GSDA-C control GSD2-3K 2.3 kGy GSD3-8K 3.8 kGy GSD6-1K 6.1 kGy GSD10-5K 10.5 kGy GSD13-9K 13.9 kGy GSD25A2 24.8 kGy GSD50A 1 49.8 kGy

FIG. 2 Enhanced production of hydrogels under varying processing conditions.

FIG. 3 A comparison of Acacia Seyal protein content when subjected to radiation processing; monitored by ultraviolet absorption at 214 nm.

TO-7A1 0.7 kGy T1-2AI 1.2 kGy TI-5A1 1.5 kGy T3-2A1 3.2 kGy T8-9A1 5.9 kGy T24-8A1 248 kGy T49-8A1 49.8 kGy T-C2 Control

FIG. 4 a ¹³C-NMR of Acacia senegal (unirradiated).

FIG. 4 b ¹³C-NMR of Acacia Senegal (irradiated for 6.1kGy)

FIG. 5 Shear viscosity profile as a function of shear rates of 33.3% (w/w) control and irradiated Acacia Senegal (spray dried). (●) control; (∘) 2.3 kGy; (▴) 2.8 kGy; (Δ)6.1 kGy; (▪) 10.5 kGy; (□) 13.9 kGy.

FIG. 6 A plot of (a) storage modulus and (b) loss modulus as a function of frequency of 33.3% (w/w) control and irradiated Acacia Senegal (spray dried). (▴) control; (□) 2.3 kGy; (●) 2.8 kGy; (×) 3.8 kGy; (⋄) 6.1 kGy; (▪) 10.5 kGy; (□) 13.9 kGy.

FIG. 7 a Differential molar mass distribution of control and irradiated Dextran.

Dextran Control D0-7A1 0.7 kGy D1-2A1 1.2 kGy D1-5K1 1.5 kGy D1-7K 1.7 kGy D2-3kGy 2.3 kGy D3-8K 3.8 kGy D5-9A1 5.9 kGy D16-2A1 16.2 kGy D24-8A1 24.8 kGy D49-8A1 49.8 kGy

FIG. 7 b Storage modules (G′) plotted as a function of frequency of 6.25% (w/v) Dextran. (∘) control; (∘) 1.5 kGy; (+) 1.7 kGy; (Δ) 2.3 kGy; (▪) 2.8 kGy; (□) 3.8 kGy; (▴) 16.2 kGy; (×) 24.8 kGy.

FIG. 8 a Differential molar mass distribution of control and irradiated CMC.

CMC-C2 Control C1-5K 1.5 kGy C1-7K 1.7 kGy C2-3K 2.3 kGy C2-8K 2.8 kGy C3-8K 8.3 kGy

FIG. 8 b Shear viscosity profile as a function of shear rates of control and irradiated 2% in H₂O of CMC. (∘) control; (Δ) 1.5 kGy; (□) 2.8 kGy.

FIG. 8 c Storage modulus (G′); plotted as a function of frequency for 2% in H₂O of control and irradiated CMC (∘) control; (Δ) 1.5 kGy; (□) 2.8 kGy.

FIG. 9 a Differential molar mass distribution of control and irradiated pullulan

P-C2 Control P1-2AI 1.2 kGy P1-5K 1.5 kGy P1-7K 1.7 kGy P2-3K 2.3 kGy P2-8K 2.8 kGy P3-8K 3.8 kGy P5-9A1 5.9 kGy P24-8A1 24.8 kGy P49-8A1 49.8 kGy

FIG. 9 b Storage modulus (G′); plotted as a function of frequency of control and irradiated 20% pullulan. (∘) control; ( ) 2.3 kGy; (▪) 2.8 kGy.

FIG. 10 a Shear viscosity as a function of shear rates for 0.5% in H₂O of irradiated hyaluronan compared with control.

FIG. 10 b Loss modulus (G″) plotted as a function of frequency for 0.4% in H₂O of irradiated hyaluronan compared with the control.

FIG. 10 c Infra red scans of irradiated hylan fibers.

FIG. 11 a Storage modulus (G′) plotted as a function of frequency of 1% in H₂O of control and irradiated xanthan. The solution was heated for 20 min. at 85° C. and the measurements were performed at 25° C. (∘) control; (●) 0.7 kGy,

FIG. 11 b Loss modulus (G″) plotted as a function of frequency of 1% in H₂O of control and irradiated xanthan. The solution was heated for 20 min. at 85° C. and the measurements were performed at 25° C. (∘) control; (●) 0.7 kGy.

FIG. 11 c Dynamic viscosity (η′) plotted as a function of frequency of 1% in H₂O of control and irradiated xanthan. The solution was heated for 20 min. at 85° C. and the measurements were performed at 25° C. (∘) control; (●) 0.7 kGy.

FIG. 12 Shear viscosity profile as a function of shear rate of 1% in H₂O of control and irradiated kappa-carrageenan. The solution was heated for 20 min. at 85° C. and the measurements were performed at 25°. (∘) control; (●) 16.2 kGy; (▴) 24.8 kGy.

FIG. 13 Storage modulus (G″) plotted as a function of frequency of 3.6% (w/v) in H₂O of control and irradiated orange pectin. (Δ) control; (●) 3 kGy.

FIG. 14 (a) Storage modulus (G′), (b) loss modulus (G″) and (c) dynamic viscosity plotted as a function of frequency of 10% (w/v) in H₂O of control and irradiated gelatin. Samples were heated for 15 min. at 50° C. and the measurements were carried out on cooled samples at 25° C. (∘) control; (●) 3 kGy; (Δ) 10 kGy.

FIG. 15 Storage modulus (G′); plotted as a function of frequency of 4% (w/v) in H₂O of control and irradiated mix containing 90% orange pectin+10% CMC. (∘) control; (●) 3.3 kGy; (▴) 10.4 kGy.

FIG. 16 Storage modulus (G′), plotted as a function of frequency of 4% (w/v) in H₂O of control and irradiated mix containing 90% orange pectin+10% dextran. (∘) control; (●) 3.3 kGy; (,29) 10.4 kGy.

FIG. 17 Storage modulus (G′), plotted as a function of frequency of 4% (w/v) in H₂O of control and irradiated mix containing 50% dextran+50% CMC. (∘) control; ( ) 3.3 kGy; (▴) 10.4 kGy.

FIG. 18 Dynamic viscosity plotted as a function of frequency of 4% (w/v) in H₂O of control and irradiated mix containing 90% polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP)+10% Dextran. (∘) control; (□) 10 4 kGy processed together; (▪) 10.4 kGy processed separately.

FIG. 19 (a) Storage modulus (G′); (b) Loss modulus (G″); and (c) Dynamic viscosity (η′) plotted as a function of frequency of 4% (w/v) in H₂O of control and irradiated mix containing 50% polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP)+50% arabinogalactan protein (Gum Arabic). (Δ) control; (●) 3.1 kGy processed together; (Δ) 3.1 kGy processed separately; (▪) 10.4 kGy processed together; (□) 10.4 kGy processed separately.

FIG. 20 (a) Storage modulus (G′); (b) loss modulus (G″); (c) dynamic viscosity (η) plotted as a function of frequency of 25% (w/v) in H₂O of control and irradiated mix containing 10% carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)+90% arabinogalactan protein (Gum Arabic) (∘) control; (●) 3.1 kGy processed together; (Δ) 3.1 kGy processed separately.

FIG. 21 GPC chromatogram of control and irradiated mix containing 10% carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)+90% arabinogalactan protein (Gum Arabic).

-   -   C-M6 Control 3-M6 3.1 kGy 10-M6 10.4 kGy

FIG. 22 (a) Storage modulus (G′); (b) loss modulus (G″); (c) dynamic viscosity (η) plotted as a function of frequency of 4% (w/v) in H₂O of control and irradiated mix containing 90% orange pectin+10% dextran. (Δ) control; (●) 3.1 kGy processed together; (∘) 3.1 kGy processed separately; (▪) 10.4 kGy processed together; (□) 10.4 kGy processed separately.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention will now be described in greater detail in the following examples which are not intended to limit the scope of the invention but are merely explanatory thereof.

EXAMPLE 1

Arabinogalactan Proteins

The structures, properties and functionality of the gum exudates Acacia Senegal and Acacia Seyal have previously been elucidated by us and these species are included within the scope of this example and the invention. They are also included within the specifications of the material commercially known as Gum Arabic of Commerce.

These materials are widely used in industry as adhesives, stabilizers, emulsifiers, flavor encapsulators, materials for preventing sugar crystallization (in confectionery), stabilizing printing ink, etc. This material is a globular cross-linked polysaccharide made up of arabinose, galactose, rhamnose and uronic acid joined together in polysaccharide units of ca. 400,000 molecular weight (MW), with each of the globular polysaccharide units joined together like beads on a string to a protein chain. The protein composition is about 3%. The arabinogalactan proteins are not discrete molecular entities, since on hydrophobic or size exclusion fractionation, two main components can be differentiated with MW ca 1×10⁶ and 4-5×10⁵.

Characterizing Properties Associated with the New Products Produced A Controlled Increase in Molecular Weight

The process allows a controlled increased molecular weight of arabinogalactans. The starting material is first fractionated using gel permeation chromatography (GPC) column coupled to a multi-angle laser light scattering detector (MALLS), a concentration detector (Refractive index—RI) and UV absorbance detector at 214 nm. The system allows the molecular weight distribution of the gum to be measured using multi-angle laser light scattering, and thus any changes in the overall structure can be monitored using the three detectors. Typical changes in molecular weight distribution is shown in FIG. 1 and the quantitative results are given in Table 1 for a representative spray dried Acacia Senegal gum. To illustrate that the spray drying processing has no influence on the generality of the changes observed, we have also carried out exactly the same experiments using unprocessed (lump) Acacia Senegal gum and the results are shown in Table 2, which are directly comparable A 4-fold-soluble. There is a corresponding increase in the root mean square radius of the processed gum.

TABLE 1 Acacia senegal: an arabinogalactan protein (spray dried). % M_(w) means the mass recovered after injection. Rg is the RMS-radius and P is the polydispersity (P = M_(w)/M_(n)). M_(wt) processed M_(wt) processed File name as one peak % M_(wt) R_(g) nm P as two peaks % M_(wt) R_(g) nm P Comments GSD5A-C 8.42 × 10⁵ ± 0.56 98 — 2.28 2.41 × 10⁶ ± 0.15 20.9 13.3 1.40 Control 4.18 × 10⁵ ± 0.25 77.4 — 1.37 GSD2-3K 2.32 × 10⁶ ± 0.21 96.8 8.3 4.78 7.20 × 10⁶ ± 0.67 26.5 21.2 2.38  2.3 KGy 4.76 × 10⁵ ± 0.43 70.6 — 1.28 GSD2-8K 3.44 × 10⁶ ± 0.30 92.1 27.8 5.85 1.07 × 10⁷ ± 0.09 26.1 28.7 2.37  2.8 KGy 5.71 × 10⁵ ± 0.11 66.1 27.4 1.30 GSD3-8K 3.69 × 10⁶ ± 0.33 83.7 29.5 6.09 1.06 × 10⁷ ± 0.09 26.0 30.1 2.59  3.8 KGy 5.52 × 10⁵ ± 0.48 57.9 29.3 1.25 GSD6-1K 3.12 × 10⁶ ± 0.26 63.1 31.9 6.0 1.12 × 10⁷ ± 0.09 15.2 34.4 2.63  6.1 KGy 5.30 × 10⁵ ± 0.39 47.9 31.0 1.30 GSD10-5K 1.81 × 10⁶ ± 0.16 47.6 29.3 5.65 7.93 × 10⁶ ± 0.72 9.1 32.6 2.51 10.5 KGy 3.65 × 10⁵ ± 0.32 37.8 27.8 1.37 GSD13-9K 1.54 × 10⁶ ± 0.17 37.5 26.3 5.70 7.11 × 10⁶ ± 0.79 6.8 31.0 2.50 13.9 KGy 5.30 × 10⁵ ± 0.39 30.0 23.0 1.39 GSD25A 7.98 × 10⁵ ± 0.71 18.3 — 4.48 7.32 × 10⁶ ± 0.55 9.1 32.6 2.51 24.8 KGy 2.69 × 10⁵ ± 0.19 16.5 38.2 1.74 GSD49-8A 3.27 × 10⁵ ± 0.53 12.4 — 2.18 2.48 × 10⁶ ± 0.56 0.33 27.6 1.5 49.8 KGy 2.01 × 10⁵ ± 0.32 12.2 — 1.39

TABLE 2 Acacia senegal gum (unprocessed/lump gum). % M_(w) means the mass recovered after injection. Rg is the RMS-radius and P is the polydispersity (P = M_(w)/M_(n)). M_(wt) processed M_(wt) processed File name as one peak % M_(w) R_(g) nm P as two peaks % M_(w) R_(g) nm P Comments HASHAB 4.92 × 10⁵ ± 0.25 104 — 1.73 1.64 × 10⁶ ± 0.08 15.1 10   1.26 Control 2.96 × 10⁵ ± 0.15 89.5 — 1.18 HAS0-7A1 5.71 × 10⁵ ± 0.14 107 24.8 2.10 2.19 × 10⁶ ± 0.05 15.7 28.9 1.43  0.7 KGy 2.92 × 10⁵ ± 0.08 91.9 24.0 1.23 HAS1-2A1 7.88 × 10⁵ ± 0.19 110 17.5 2.67 3.13 × 10⁶ ± 0.09 18.6 30.8 1.63  1.2 KGy 3.18 × 10⁵ ± 0.05 93.1 13.2 1.26 HSA2-3K 6.94 × 10⁵ ± 0.59 88.9 — 3.23 3.46 × 10⁶ ± 0.31 15.7 21.5 1.95  2.3 KGy 2.49 × 10⁵ ± 0.19 97.7 — 1.31 HSA2-8K 1.04 × 10⁶ ± 0.08 110 — 3.97 4.45 × 10⁶ ± 0.35 20.1 23.3 2.14  2.8 KGy 2.77 × 10⁵ ± 0.21 90.1 — 1.27 HSA3-8K 9.99 × 10⁵ ± 0.77 113 — 3.67 4.76 × 10⁶ ± 0.37 17.8 25.9 2.17  3.8 KGy 2.96 × 10⁵ ± 0.21 96.0 — 1.26 HAS5-9A 1.12 × 10⁶ ± 0.27 108 29.1 3.54 4.25 × 10⁶ ± 0.09 22.0 35.5 1.82  5.9 KGy 3.40 × 10⁵ ± 0.09 87.3 27.3 1.30 HSA6-1K 1.31 × 10⁶ ± 0.12 108 — 5.09 6.30 × 10⁶ ± 0.61 18.6 26.4 2.56  6.1 KGy 2.83 × 10⁵ ± 0.26 90.2 — 1.29 HSA10-5K 1.37 × 10⁶ ± 0.09 91.9 23.0 4.55 5.80 × 10⁶ ± 0.40 17.7 32.2 2.43 10.5 KGy 3.18 × 10⁵ ± 0.21 74.4 20.3 1.27 HSA13-9K 1.30 × 10⁶ ± 0.14 76.8 — 4.85 6.39 × 10⁶ ± 0.70 12.6 19.8 2.43 13.9 KGy 2.97 × 10⁵ ± 0.31 64.2 — 1.30 HAS16-2A 1.38 × 10⁵ ± 0.03 85.6 28.6 4.53 5.79 × 10⁶ ± 0.14 16.1 35.9 2.06 16.2 KGy 3.50 × 10⁵ ± 0.08 69.5 26.5 1.38 HAS24-8A 1.27 × 10⁶ ± 0.37 70 27.7 4.27 5.83 × 10⁶ ± 0.07 12.0 35.4 2.12 24.8 KGy 3.27 × 10⁵ ± 0.06 57.7 25.8 1.29 HAS49-8A 1.25 × 10⁶ ± 0.03 75 34.2 3.97 5.14 × 10⁶ ± 0.15 14.3 35.8 2.06 49.8 KGy 3.45 × 10⁵ ± 0.09 60.8 33.8 1.30 2 Conversion into Hydrogel Form (of Varying Dimensions)

By controlled delivery of the dose of radiation, the high molecular weight acacia gum can be converted into a hydrogel according to the following pattern:

Tables 1 and 2 also illustrate how it is possible to progressively convert any amount or proportion of the soluble arabinoglactan protein into hydrogel. Moreover the particle sin of the hydrogel can be varied according to need. Coulter counter distributions show, for example, this variation from a mean of 160 μm upwards into solidified hydrogel systems at 2000 μm and beyond (FIG. 2). The pattern then is of a progressive increase in MW, with a portion even reaching 100×10⁶, linking up at this stage to give gel particles which are quite visible. These particles are not even able to enter the fractionating column, and consume the highest MW material, which accounts for the levelling off of the soluble gum after 6.1 Kgy.

Increasing the Proportion of the Higher Molecular Weight Emulsification Component

The high molecular weight arabinogalactan protein (AGP) component of Acacia gums is responsible for the emulsification effectiveness of oil in water emulsion. The higher proportion in Acacia Senegal compared with Acacia Seyal makes this gum more valuable, and as such commands a higher price. The AGP coats the oil droplets and prevents them from re-associating. Therefore, such an emulsion is stable for months and even years. To increase the amount of this component would in itself give added value to the gum. We are able to demonstrate that by applying the radiation processing method to Acacia Seyal the proportion of the higher molecular weight component (AGP) can be increased. This increase is reflected by the molecular weight distribution and the RMS-radius and so gives a new material with properties more akin to A. senegal (Table 3).

TABLE 3 Acacia seyal (Talha). % M_(w) means the mass recovered after injection. Rg is the RMS-radius and P is the polydispersity (P = M_(w)/M_(n)). M_(wt) processed M_(wt) processed File name as one peak % M_(wt) R_(g) nm P as two peaks % M_(wt) R_(g) nm P Comments TC-1 1.15 × 10⁶ ± 0.02 106 20.6 1.98 2.98 × 10⁶ ± 0.05 26.5 26.1 1.37 Control 5.58 × 10⁵ ± 0.20 82.3 18.5 1.28 T0-7A1 1.65 × 10⁶ ± 0.33 103 25.1 2.89 4.45 × 10⁶ ± 0.09 29.2 31.1 1.65  0.7 kGy 5.44 × 10⁵ ± 0.09 74.0 22.0 1.27 T1-2A1 1.67 × 10⁶ ± 0.02 101 23.2 2.32 3.81 × 10⁶ ± 0.06 33.5 27.8 1.54  1.2 kGy 6.09 × 10⁵ ± 0.07 68.2 20.8 1.14 T1-5A1 1.78 × 10⁶ ± 0.39 108 21.5 2.51 4.31 × 10⁶ ± 0.07 28.1 36.9 1.63  1.5 kGy 5.72 × 10⁵ ± 0.07 71.9 17.2 1.13 T3-2A1 3.17 × 10⁶ ± 0.06 105 30.4 3.91 7.64 × 10⁶ ± 0.16 38.1 35.4 2.18  3.2 kGy 6.15 × 10⁵ ± 0.09 68.1 27.2 1.14 T5-9A1 3.33 × 10⁶ ± 0.83 99.1 35.1 4.31 8.61 × 10⁶ ± 0.22 33.4 38.4 2.26  5.9 kGy 6.49 × 10⁵ ± 0.12 66.0 33.3 1.17 T24-8A1 3.07 × 10⁶ ± 0.06 78.5 33.5 3.74 7.05 × 10⁶ ± 0.14 29.6 35.9 2.09 24.8 kGy 6.31 × 10⁵ ± 0.12 48.0 32.1 1.14 T49-8A1 3.05 × 10⁶ ± 0.07 72.4 35.0 4.17 7.33 × 10⁶ ± 0.17 26.6 37.3 2.23 49.8 kGy 5.70 × 10⁵ ± 0.10 45.4 33.6 1.14

Table 3 illustrates how the high molecular weight component can be increased in molecular weight from 3 to 8 million, and its amount increased from 26% to 38%. Using hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC) the individual components were fractionated. The results confirm the increased proportion of the AGP component reflected by the increased amount of protein by UV monitoring at 214 nm as shown in FIG. 3.

Improved Emulsification Performance

The modified acacia gum samples were evaluated. The results of the evaluation of emulsification effectiveness showed:

-   -   When Acacia Senegal was converted into a new product with         increased molecular weight, it proved to be a better emulsifier         than the original unprocessed control     -   When Acacia Seyal, the least effective emulsifier compared with         Acacia Senegal was processed to increase its molecular weight         and to give the same amount of high molecular weight component         as Acacia Senegal, its performance was as good. Thus in effect,         the Acacia Seyal had been converted at least with respect to its         emulsification behavior, to the more valuable Acacia Senegal.         No Introduction of New Chemical Groups

The doses of radiation are relatively low in relation to those which would induce significant chemical change when the same material is irradiated in the absence of the mediating gas. Chemical analyses have shown that there is no significant structural change introduced by the process as shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Physicochemical and Chemical Properties of Original and Irradiated Gum (25 kGy 10 Mev electrons volt) Control Irradiated % moisture 12.5 12.4 Specific rotation +52 +52 Limiting viscosity 12 16 (cc/g) % sugars 5 4 Rhamnose Arabinose 45 46 Galactose 34 34 Glucuronic acid 15 15 Nitrogen 0.15 0.15

For precise evaluation ¹³C-NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of the unprocessed and processed gum for which maximum molecular weight change had been found were compared. No difference was found between the processed and unprocessed gum (FIGS. 4 a and 4 b). Thus no new chemical groups had been introduced as a result of the processing.

Controlled Increase in Viscosity and Viscoelasticity

The changes in shear viscosity with shear rate reflect the molecular weight changes which were found. Initially the gum is a compact globular system, with no significant effect of shear. At this stage the polysaccharide acts as a set of small compact balls, with no shear thinning. As the dose of radiation used for processing is increased, an entangled network is produced, typical of longer entangled molecules when shear thinning can be observed (FIG. 5). There is at least 1000-fold increase in viscosity at zero shear after a dose of 13 kGy.

Oscillation measurements also confirmed the above observations (FIGS. 6 a and 6 b). Here, the storage modulus (G′—FIG. 6 a) and the loss modulus (G″—FIG. 6 b) are plotted as a function of frequency. The dynamic network build up, is again, reflected by the change from dilute solution response (that is G″>G′) to concentrated solution (G′>G″) with a cross-over frequency shifted to lower frequency with increasing M_(W)) and finally to strong gel behavior where G′ and G″ are independent of frequency. The dynamic viscosity is similar to shear viscosity profile given in FIG. 5, with shear thinning developing, as a result of building a network structure capable of entanglements, with increasing dose. Thus the viscosity can be increased as required and when necessary the system can be converted into a hydrogel, which is a highly viscoelastic state.

Improved Interaction with Water (Enhanced Water Binding Properties)

As a result of increasing its molecular dimensions, it is possible to control the water binding properties of the arabinoglactan protein. This was demonstrated using pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry.

The spin-spin relaxation times (T₂) for the processed and unprocessed Acacia Senegal and Acacia Seyal aqueous solutions are shown in Table 5. Measurements were carried out using a 25 MHz Pulse NMR at 30° C. Completely soluble Acacia Seyal sample were selected, and here only one kind of T₂ is evident. Since T₂ of bulk water varies from 2 to 4 sec, and the values found for the Acacia Seyal samples are 1 sec or less, it is evident that the molecular motion of the water is restricted by the acacia gum. In other words the acacia samples bind water. Our studies using differential scanning calorimetry have previously demonstrated the effectiveness of the acacia gum in binding water. See “Hydration characteristics of the gum exudate from Acacia Senegal, G. O. Phillips, et al, Food Hydrocolloids, Vol 10 (1), 1996, pp 11-19.

As shown in Table 5, the value of T₂ decreases with molecular weight. This shows that the amount of bound water increases with molecular weight.

The spray dried Acacia Senegal samples showed two kinds of T₂ values, since the selected gums have a gel component. The same trend however is shown for the increased water binding with increased molecular weight for the free water component. The reverse is true for the gel component. With increased molecular weight, the hydrogel structure is more loose and the extent of the water immobilization decreases with molecular weight.

The T₂ of the dry samples was also measured and is listed in Table 6. Both types of samples show two kinds of T₂. T_(2S) relates to the relaxation time for the proton of the OH groups in the gum and T_(2L) is the relaxation time for the absorbed water. Again there is an effect of molecular weight to decrease relaxation time, which fits in with the aqueous solution observations and those carried out on the “dry” samples.

TABLE 5 Spin-spin relaxation time (T₂) for Gum Arabic aqueous solutions. Measurements were carried out using a pulse NMR at 30° C. Sample Conc. T_(2s) T_(2L) Treatment Seyal 10.0 — 1000.00 (100%) Control (1.2) Seyal 10.0 — 980.34 (100%) 5.9 kGy (3.3) Seyal 10.0 — 908.18 (100%) 49.8 kGy (3.0) Senegal 10.0 55.79 (5.6%) 374.19 (94.4%) Control (0.84) Senegal 9.91 78.13 (7.9%) 341.91 (92.1%) 6.1 kGy (3.1) Senegal 10.0 112.54 (57.2%) 368.20 (42.8%) 49.8 kGy (3.3)

TABLE 6 Spin-spin relaxation time (T₂) for dry Gum Arabic samples. Measurements were carried out using a pulse NMR at 30° C. Sample T_(2s) T_(2L) MW × 10⁶ (μsec) (%) (μsec) (%) Treatment Seyal (1.2) 15.58 (74.9%) 242.11 (25.1%) Control Seyal (3.3) 15.45 (77.9%) 207.82 (22.1%) 5.9 kGy Seyal (3.0) 15.64 (76.9%) 202.43 (23.1%) 49.8 kGy Senegal (0.84) 16.51 (75.8%) 309.93 (24.2%) Control Senegal (3.1) 15.95 (77.3%) 284.97 (22.7%) 6.1 kGy Senegal (3.3) 15.95 (78.4%) 265.98 (21.6%) 49.8 kGy

EXAMPLE 2

Natural (Unsubstituted) and Chemically Modified Polysaccharides

The identical type of modification can be achieved with the widest range of polysaccharides available. Here polysaccharides typical of the various groups will be described. The results will be summarized, but the type of information already described is available and forms part of this claim.

The process modification herein described can be achieved with the widest range of polysaccharide systems available. It is not possible to illustrate this with every single polysaccharide and those which have been chemically modified. Nevertheless, we have selected representative samples from the various groups and families to show that similar changes can be produced over the whole range of such materials and that the behavior is universal. In this section, we provide illustrative examples commensurate in scope with the product claims set forth below.

DEXTRAN—a Bacterial Branched Chain Polysaccharide

As is known, the basic skeleton of dextran consists of (1-6) linked D-glucose units with side chains attached to 0-3 of the backbone chain units. The degree of branching has been determined to be 5%. There is also some indication of a small proportion of α-D(1-3) branches. However, many aspects of the fine structure remain to be resolved.

Dextran is used as blood-plasma substitutes and for this purpose needs to have a variety of molecular weights. They are also used as standards for the measurement of molecular weights. For this reason it would be advantageous to have a method which would precisely tailor the molecular weight to particular values.

The dextran selected for the example is of high average MW (1.44×10⁶), with two peaks observable in the chromatogram. The weight average molecular weight of each peak was determined and found to be 2.34×10⁶ and 2.05×10⁵. After a dose of 1.2 kGy radiation, there was an increase in MW of the average (3.04×10⁶) and highest MW component (4.58×10⁶).

The molar mass distributions illustrate the overall increase in MW distribution. (FIG. 7 a) The gel formation starts after a dose of 1.2 KGy as reflected by the decrease in the mass recovery (Table 7). Again, the gel formation increases with the irradiation dose. As the dose is increased, the MW levels off and then decreases as gel is formed by cross-linking of the high MW soluble polysaccharide. After a dose of 49.8 kGy, approximately 83% of the original material will not pass through a 1 μm filter and was used to prepare the gel, which is visually observable. The root mean square radii (RMS) confirm the increases in MW of the disperse polysaccharide system, increasing from the initial value of 26.8 nm to ˜43 nm at the highest MW attained. Polydispersity (P) similarly increases showing the broadening of the molecular weight distribution at the higher molecular weight end of the chromatogram (from 4 to 5). Details of the quantitative changes are given in Table 7.

TABLE 7 Changes in molecular weight and RMS-radius of processed Dextran. % M_(w) means the mass recovered after injection. Rg is the RMS-radius and P is the polydispersity (P = M_(w)/M_(n)). M_(wt) processed M_(wt) processed File name as one peak % M_(wt) R_(g) nm P as two peaks % M_(wt) R_(g) nm P Dose Dextran 1.44 × 10⁶ ± 0.10 105 16.8 3.98 2.34 × 10⁶ ± 0.16 67.3 21.2 1.84 Control 2.05 × 10⁵ ± 0.25 43.4 5.5 1.13 D0-7A1 2.38 × 10⁶ ± 0.49 100 37.3 3.88 3.58 × 10⁶ ± 0.13 64.4 39.5 2.02  0.7 KGy 3.08 × 10⁵ ± 0.07 36.8 32.8 1.07 D1-2A1 3.04 × 10⁶ ± 0.09 103 43.3 4.3 4.58 × 10⁶ ± 0.13 65.7 43.9 2.41  1.5 KGy 3.50 × 10⁵ ± 0.08 38.05 43.9 1.05 D1-5K 2.16 × 10⁶ ± 0.09 92.2 35.7 5.35 3.65 × 10⁶ ± 0.15 52.0 37.7 2.70  1.5 KGy 2.30 × 10⁵ ± 0.10 41.2 33.0 1.08 D1-7K 1.96 × 10⁶ ± 0.08 93.0 34.5 5.07 3.56 × 10⁶ ± 0.14 48.2 36.1 2.61  1.7 KGy 2.42 × 10⁵ ± 0.09 45.2 32.8 1.10 D2-3K 1.62 × 10⁶ ± 0.07 85.0 30.6 5.24 3.11 × 10⁶ ± 0.14 41.0 34.6 2.45  2.3 KGy 2.10 × 10⁵ ± 0.11 44.0 26.2 1.16 D2-8K 1.21 × 10⁶ ± 0.05 71 27.1 5.23 2.51 × 10⁶ ± 0.11 31.3 32.4 2.38  2.8 KGy 1.85 × 10⁵ ± 0.09 40.0 22.5 1.31 D3-8K 9.69 × 10⁶ ± 0.08 66 24.3 5.10 2.30 × 10⁶ ± 0.09 24.6 32.1 2.23  3.8 KGy 1.74 × 10⁵ ± 0.07 42.0 18.0 1.36 D5-9A1 9.30 × 10⁵ ± 0.41 43 36.9 4.17 2.66 × 10⁶ ± 0.12 11.6 38.6 2.65  5.9 KGy 2.08 × 10⁵ ± 0.09 31.5 36.0 1.20 D16.2A1 3.54 × 10⁵ ± 0.24 27 34.1 4.39 1.99 × 10⁶ ± 0.15 3.1 36.5 2.68 16.2 KGy 1.20 × 10⁵ ± 0.05 23.7 32.7 1.67 D24-8A1 1.75 × 10⁵ ± 0.18 22 — 4.97 1.15 × 10⁶ ± 0.14 1.29 38.6 24.8 KGy 9.80 × 10⁵ ± 0.90 20.8 — D49-8A1 1.72 × 10⁶ ± 0.40 17 — 4.42 49.8lKGy

Rheologically, the changes in viscosity of the processed dextan are very marked. Initially the shear viscosity profile shows a Newtonian behavior which changes to shear thinning with increasing radiation dose. Significantly even though the overall MW shows a decrease at 24.8 kGy, the viscosity is maintained, indicating that the gel-like character of the system is built up prior to gel formation. Oscillation measurements confirmed the above observation where the increase in G′ and G″ as a function of irradiation dose is shown in FIG. 7 b where the changes from dilute solution response to concentrated solution and finally to gel like response are clearly demonstrated.

The changes below illustrate schematically the rapid conversion of the soluble material into gel. By careful doses and MW selection, the required system can be tailor-made. Here the gel particles show a distribution from 20-600 μm.

Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC): a chemically modified polysaccharide. When cellulose is steeped in sodium hydroxide solution and the alkali cellulose etherified with sodium monochloracetate, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose is produced: R_(cell)(OH)₃+ClCH₂COONa+NaOH Rcell(OH)₂(OCH₂COONa)+NaCl+H₂O Because three reactive hydroxyl groups are present on each D-glucose-pyranosyl unit, it is possible to introduce three sodium carboxymethyl groups per unit. Such a product would be described as having a degree of substitution of 3. Commercial CMC generally has an average DS of less than 1.5. The derivatized product, having been derived from cellulose with its β-1-4 link preserved is linear in character, and was selected as a structure different from the globular and cross-linked polysaccharides previously described.

A summary of the results is given in Table 8. It is clear that the structural changes can again be achieved using the radiation processing, even in this linear structure, which of course would be more susceptible to radiation induced chain scission effects. The initial mean MW of 1.55×10⁵, with a dose of 1.5 kGy is increased three-fold to 4.44×10⁵. Moreover the polydispersity is improved from 2 to 2.8. This is quite apparent in the differential (FIG. 8 a) molar mass distribution, and the increase in R_(g) from 36 to 52 (see Table 8).

TABLE 8 CMC (7M). % M_(w) means the mass recovered after injection. Rg is the RMS-radius and P is the polydispersity (P = M_(w)/M_(n)). Mean particles diameter File name M_(wt) % M_(wt) R_(g) nm P (μm) Treatment CMC-C 1.55 × 10⁵ ± 0.10 100 36.4 2.0 None Control C1-5K 4.44 × 10⁵ ± 0.25 73 51.9 1.50 215 1.5 kGy C1-7K 3.94 × 10⁵ ± 0.17 82 51.7 1.8 245 1.7 kGy C2-3K 3.57 × 10⁵ ± 0.15 81 47.9 2.23 310 2.3 kGy C2-8K 3.13 × 10⁵ ± 0.14 74 46.8 2.82 434 2.8 kGy C3-8K 2.71 × 10⁵ ± 0.12 64 31.3 2.39 532 3.8 kGy

The changes in viscosity (FIG. 8 b) reflect the MW changes, with the now anticipated shear thinning associated with the higher molecular weight product. Gel is formed at the higher doses and is visible in solution. Gelation of CMC solution can be controlled to give stable gels ranging in consistency from soft pourable to very firm. Oscillation measurements are given in FIGS. 8 c and d for G′ and G″ respectively. At a frequency of 0.1 Hz there is a 10-fold increase in G′ and G″. The method allows controlled increase in molecular weight and gel formation which are increased linearly with the radiation dose as shown in Table 8.

Samples of the modified CMC were subjected to evaluation of its effectiveness in baking applications. The evaluation was extremely positive as shown in the summary of the report based on Farinograph data of three modified samples:

TABLE 9 An independent evaluation of processed CMC. Dough Water absorption Dough stability softening Sample % Min. BU The Company Standard 62.0 6.8 60 Unprocessed Control 67.6 7.7 65 C1 65.7 15.5 15 C2 62.3 18.3 20 C3 68.4 12.3 30

-   -   The following explanation will assist in the interpretation of         these parameters: Standard CMC is a 7 MF which is the starting         material.     -   Dough softening is the change in consistency during mixing. The         better the dough maintains its consistency, the better, and         consequently a good dough stability (measured in minutes) and a         low dough softening (measured in BRABENDER UNITS (an arbitrary         unit) is the target.     -   The dough stability is the number of minutes the dough maintains         the same consistency, the dough softening is the change in         consistency after a fixed number of minutes (typically 12         minutes)     -   Water absorption is the amount of water added in order to obtain         a fixed consistency—i.e. if a flour has high water absorption,         it requires more water to obtain this fixed consistency than a         flour with low water absorption. Addition of hydrocolloids can         increase the water absorption, but often it results in lower         dough stability and higher dough softening—which is logical as         the dough contains more water.

-   Conclusion: As seen from Table 9, the samples provided showed good     water absorption properties, excellent dough stability and     resistance to dough softening. This means that a very stable dough     with excellent mixing properties and good water absorption can be     made using our modified CMC samples C1, C2 and C3.

-   Pullulan: a fungal polysaccharide

-   Pullulan is a glucan which is extracellularly elaborated by a fungus     of the genus Aureobasidium. It is a linear glucan consisting of     repeating units of maltotriose joined by α-D-(1-6) linkages.     Pullulan hydrolyses produced by pullanase yield about 6.6%     maltotetraose, indicating that pullulan contains some maltotetraose     units.

Pullulan was Selected for the Example Because It Is Intermediate between the Straight Chain

CMC and the cross-linked dextran and highly branched globular arabinogalactan proteins. On radiation processing the average MW doubles from 3.17×10⁵ to 6.81×10⁵ and maintains this level to 2.8 kGy; and moreover, there is conversion of the original material to form gel after 3.8 kGy. After a dose 49.8 KGy there is some 30% of the original material converted into gel particles (Table 10).

It is evident that doses and irradiation conditions need to be identified for each system to achieve the optimum results. The initial molecular weight distribution shows two peaks, with one centred on a molar mass of 2.3×10^(5,) but moves to 3.5×10^(5.) The second high molecular weight peak, initially at 6×10⁵ moves on processing to 1.3×10^(6.) The molecular weight distribution broadens (FIG. 9 a) and there is a decrease in the original differential weight fractions as the higher molecular weight material is being formed. Measurements of G′ (FIG. 9 b) shows the enhancement of the rheological properties in manner expected for high molecular weight materials. The dynamic viscosity increase on processing correlates well with the above mentioned Figure.

TABLE 10 Pullulan. % M_(w) means the mass recovered after injection. Rg is the RMS radius and P is the polydispersity (P = M_(w)/M_(n)). M_(wt) processed M_(wt) processed File name as one peak % M_(wt) R_(g) nm P as two peaks % M_(wt) R_(g) nm P Comments Pullulan 3.17 × 10⁵ ± 0.16 118 30.1 2.74 P1-2A1 4.84 × 10⁵ ± 0.18 105 32 2.27 1.13 × 10⁶ ± 0.03 32.3 37.7 1.43  1.2 KGy 1.97 × 10⁵ ± 0.10 73.9 29.5 1.21 P1-5K 6.35 × 10⁵ ± 0.35 110 25.1 3.26 1.46 × 10⁶ ± 0.08 40.0 34.5 1.89  1.5 KGy 1.65 × 10⁵ ± 0.09 71.5 17.9 1.20 P1-7K 6.81 × 10⁵ ± 0.41 108 25.3 3.62 1.57 × 10⁶ ± 0.09 40.3 33.1 2.12  1.7 KGy 1.55 × 10⁵ ± 0.09 68.0 19.3 1.19 P2-3K 6.34 × 10⁵ ± 0.44 103 — 3.60 1.51 × 10⁶ ± 0.10 36.5 36.5 2.07  2.3 KGy 1.54 × 10⁵ ± 0.10 67.5 — 1.23 P2-8K 6.60 × 10⁵ ± 0.45 101 21.2 3.63 1.67 × 10⁶ ± 0.11 33.5 30.9 2.10  2.8 KGy 1.62 × 10⁵ ± 0.10 68.3 14.1 1.23 P3-8 5.23 × 10⁵ ± 0.40 91.5 — 3.22 1.33 × 10⁶ ± 0.10 28.8 30.3 1.91  3.8 KGy 1.50 × 10⁵ ± 0.11 63.2 — 1.24 P5-9A1 6.00 × 10⁵ ± 0.14 91.8 — 4.25 1.72 × 10⁶ ± 0.04 26.2 37.3 1.97  5.9 KGy 1.71 × 10⁵ ± 0.55 67.9 — 1.40 P24-8A1 4.03 × 10⁵ ± 0.12 85.4 31.8 4.59 1.68 × 10⁶ ± 0.04 15.5 37.7 1.97 24.8 KGy 1.16 × 10⁵ ± 0.05 72.5 30.5 1.60 P49-8A1 1.77 × 10⁵ ± 0.12 69.5 — 3.43 1.48 × 10⁶ ± 0.10 4.24 32.1 1.97 49.8 KGy 7.62 × 10⁴ ± 0.58 63.8 — 1.62

Hyaluronan and the Hylan Family of Cross-linked Derivatives

First hyaluronan (HA) was subjected to the radiation processing using up to 3.8 kGy. There is an increase in Mw followed by gel formation in hyaluronan system. FIG. 10 a gives the shear viscosity profile for hyaluronan irradiated for various doses. The elastic and flow properties of linear polymeric molecules are attributed to the length of the molecules, the flexibility of the molecular chains and the interactions of the segments of a polymer molecule with other segments of the same and other polymer molecules. From FIG. 10 a it can be seen that a dose of 2.0 KGy produced higher molecular weight molecules that resulted in increasing the shear viscosity of HA system, although some gel particles are clearly present. However, upon increasing the radiation dose to 4.0 KGy the high molecular weight hydrogel gel particles increase in size and this can be done in a controlled manner. As a consequence a reduction in shear viscosity was observed. The elastic and viscous response to small oscillatory deformation further confirm the above observation which shows the increase in G′ in FIG. 10 b.

Hylan is a cross-liked derivative of the linear hyaluronan and increases in intrinsic viscosity can be achieved. The doses used were in the same range (0.828 to 4.435 kGy).

TABLE 11 Intrinsic viscosity and viscosity average molecular weight of hylan after radiation processing. Intrinsic viscosity MW(K = 0.397) Hylan (cc/g) a = 0.601) Zero kGy (Control) 3926 4.4 (×10⁶) 0.828 5062 6.8 2.484 4684 6.0 3.6 4945 6.5 4.435 4712 6.0

There were no significant new chemical groups introduced by the process, as demonstrated by the fact that infra-red scans were identical for the control and hylan irradiated to 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 kGy (FIG. 10 c). There was no difference either in the ultraviolet spectrophotometric scans of the control and processed hylan samples. Thus no changes had been introduced into the base structure by the radiation processing. When hylan of high initial molecular weight (6×10⁶) is processed, even after a dose of 1.0 kGy, a hydrogel is produced. The volume and particle diameter of the gel particles are shown in Table 12. The spectrum of particle sizes shows that after 2.0 kGy 755 of the gel particles were greater than 335 μm and 505 were greater than 673 μm. The size of the gel particles, and the quantity produced can be controlled by varying the processing conditions.

TABLE 12 Production of hydrogel after radiation processing of hylan Sample No. 75% particles > (μm) 50% particles > (μm) 12/R (Control) No measurable particles No measurable particles 0.5 Gy No measurable particles No measurable particles 1.0 Gy 279 552 2.0 Gy 335 673 Gelling Polysaccharides: Xanthan, Pectin and Carrageenan

The modifications already demonstrated for other groups of polysaccharides can be applied also to the widest range of commercial polysaccharides, including gellan, welan, guar gum, locust bean gum, algin, starch, heparin, chitin and chitosan. Since another of our objectives is to modify and improve gelation characteristics, the well established polysaccharide gelling agents have been selected to illustrate the universality of the process.

Xanthan

-   -   The chemical structure of xanthan comprises a (1→4) linked         β-D-glucan (cellulosic) backbone substituted through position 3         on alternate glucose residues with a charged trisaccharide side         chain. Dispersions of this bacterial polysaccharide exhibit weak         gel-like behaviour. This structure is disrupted upon shearing.         At low shear rates the viscosity is high and the samples show         reversible shear-thinning behaviour. Insensitivity to pH,         temperature and ionic strength can be achieved by appropriate         choice of experimental conditions.     -   It is a general practice to induce the gelation of xanthan by         the addition of divalent and trivalent inorganic ions such as         borate ions. With the process here described it is not necessary         to add such chemical additives to achieve gelation, and the         process can be achieved with “clean” xanthan in a controlled         fashion. Not having foreign additives in the system, of course,         greatly increases the range of applications possible using the         xanthan alone. FIGS. 11 a, b, and c demonstrate how the storage,         loss moduli and dynamic viscosity, can be enhanced at will over         a 10 to 100 fold range without the addition of any inorganic         ions. The proportion of gel to viscous component can be varied         as required.         Carrageenan and Alginates     -   Alginates and carrageenans are the major polysaccharide         components of certain species of marine brown and red algae.         Both are linear polymers but quite different in primary         structure. The carrageenans are based on a disaccharide         repeating sequence of alternating 1,3→linked-α-D-galactose and         1,4-linked α-D-galactose, with varying extents and patterns of         sulphation. Alginate is a 1,4-linked block co-polymer of         β-D-mannuronate and α-L-guluronate. With residues grouped in         long, homopolymeric sequences of both types, and in         heteropolymeric sequences where the distribution of the two         sugars can vary from near random to near alternating. Alginate         gives thermally-stable gels with calcium (or larger Group II         cations); carrageenan gels melt on heating and reform on         cooling. Despite these apparent dissimilarities, however, there         are also striking parallels in the way in which the two families         of polysaccharides form gel networks.     -   Both of these gelling polysaccharides can be modified by the         process already described to enable the gelling function to be         controlled and enhanced. FIG. 12 shows and example of         kappa-carrageenan shear viscosity profile. Thus a new family of         these materials can be produced. Carageenan is produced from         naturally occurring seaweed. The molecular parameters are         therefore determined entirely by this natural process. Weed from         some countries can only yield carageenan and alginate with         relatively low molecular weights. The process which we herein         describe provides a route to overcome such problems with         naturally occurring polysaccharide products.         Pectins     -   Chemically, pectin is a polyuronide, a straight chain of a few         hundred α-D-galacturonic acid molecules linked by 1,4-glycosidic         linkages which are all di-equatorial due to the C1 conformation.         In carefully extracted pectins from most plants 70-80% of the         galacturonic acid are methyl-esterified. Pectins are not pure         poly-uronides: there are 1,2-linked α-L-rhamnose molecules         interspersed in the galacturonan chain interrupting its         conformational regularity by kinks. In carefully extracted         pectins from many fruits and vegetables there are 1 to 4         molecules rhamnose and 10 to 15 molecules of arabinose and         galactose per 100 molecules of galacturonate. The L-arabinose         and D-galactose molecules are covalently bound to rhamnose         molecules as complicated side chains. High methoxyl pectins will         only gel in the presence of sugars or other co-solutes and at         sufficiently low pH, so that the acid groups in the polymer are         not completely ionised. Both gel strength and setting         temperature are influenced by these factors. In a system with         sucrose at around 65% soluble solids, high methoxyl pectins gel         up to pH 3.4 (rapid set pectin) or 3.2 (slow set pectin). As the         pH is reduced, gel strength and setting temperature will         increase up to the point at which the setting temperature         approaches the temperature at which the gel is deposited. Below         this pH, pectin tends to pre-gel. Control of the gelling         function is therefore important. We have utilised orange pectin         to demonstrate that the molecular weight and gelation can be         controlled as demonstrated by the increase in G′ given in FIG.         13. Thus a completely new range of pectin materials can be         produced, greatly extending the applicability.

EXAMPLE 3

Protein Systems

Gelatin was selected to demonstrate the applicability of the process to connective tissue proteins as well as carbohydrate systems. This series of materials does not exist in nature and are derived from the parent collagen by processes that destroy the secondary and higher structures with varying degrees of hydrolysis of the polypeptide backbone. The main source is the skin or bones of animals. This protein has a high content of glycine, proline and hydroxy-proline, with a structure which involves glycine-proline-hydroxy-proline triplets. Its triple helical structure allows it to form gels on heating and cooling in water. Although at temperatures above 35 to 40° C. gelatins in solution behave as random coils, which can take up an infinite number of transient configurations. On cooling the solution, aggregation occurs and at concentration above about 1% depending on the quality of the gelatin and pH, a clear transparent gel will form. Unlike most protein and polysacharide gels, gelatin gels are thermoreversible, since on warming the gel will dissolve. Using the solid state process described hereinabove, the molecular weight can be increased in a controlled manner to produce a range of products with varying molecular weights and solution/gelling properties (FIGS. 14 a, b and c.)

To demonstrate the generality of the phenomenon also with other proteins the same behaviour was enacted with casein in the form of its sodium salt.

EXAMPLE 4

Interactive Blends

A basic technology associated with hydrocolloids is to develop synergistic blends which have a different rheology from the simple additive behaviour of each component, usually a higher viscosity than the sum of the parts.

The process of the present invention enables such synergy to be greatly extended and provides an increased enhancement of viscosity and viscoelasticity compared with separately prepared solution mixes by several orders of magnitude. The co-processing of simple solid state mixtures using the technology developed achieves closer interaction of newly formed higher molecular weight forms of the individual components. The rheological behaviour cannot be reproduced by simply preparing selected mixtures of the parent materials.

-   -   Specific examples of these blends are:     -   Carboxymethyl cellulose-pectin systems (FIG. 15)     -   Pectin-dextran-systems (FIG. 16)     -   Carboxymethyl cellulose-dextran (FIG. 17)

The dynamic viscosity, loss and storage modulus of processed blends of these systems can be increased in a controlled manner, and presented for use in a convenience and cost-effective mixture form.

EXAMPLE 5

Adhesion and Bonding

When blends of polysaccharides or polysaccharide-proteins are prepared in a closely interactive state, binding of the components can be achieved. The rheological behaviour of the resulting products can be controlled such that the viscoelasticity is either higher or lower than the corresponding mixtures of the components given the identical processing treatment singly. New product formation incorporating the two components can be produced. It is possible also to interact and similarly co-process mixed systems of natural polysaccharides with water soluble synthetic products.

As illustrative examples of producing the effects identified we cite the following blends produced in the closely interactive state:

-   (a) when lower composite viscoelasticity can be produced polyvinyl     pyrrolidone-dextran (FIG. 18)     -   The closely interactive blend shows a lower dynamic viscosity         (after 10 kGy) than the components processed separately.         Polyethylene oxide-arabinogalactan protein interactive blends         were used to demonstrate the same behaviour using different         types of structural components. -   (b) when a higher composite viscoelasticity can be produced polyviny     pyrrolidone-arabinogalactan protein     -   The closely interactive blend after processing has several         orders of magnitude greater viscoelasticity than the equivalent         mixture of the components processed singly, when this itself is         several orders of magnitude greater than the unprocessed         controls (FIG. 19). -   (c) when a higher viscoelasticity can be produced using only     polysaccharides carboxymethyl cellulose-arabinogalactan protein     blends     -   The previously reported enhanced rheology for selected closely         interactive blends is repeated (FIG. 20) and the new product         formed can be produced such that the proportions of the         individual components in the composite can be varied. FIG. (21)         illustrates this behaviour using gel permeation/molecular weight         distribution behaviour. -   (d) when higher or lower viscoelasticity can be obtained according     to the selected conditions dextran-pectin     -   According to processing conditions, the final closely         interactive state can be used to form a composite with either         lower or higher viscoelasticity than the same blend of the         individually processed components (FIG. 22), which is itself         orders of magnitude greater viscosity than the unprocessed         control mixtures.

The new products so produced can be prepared in forms which adhere to cellulosic surfaces to provide enhanced biocomptibility, while retaining complete biodegradability. When prepared on the surface of such systems, the adhesion is greater, with some indication of some form of close bonding.

Uses

The use of closely interactive blends processed in the manner described can produce a range of new composites. Products so produced are different in behaviour from the synergistic blends described in Example 4. These new composite matrices can have either lower or higher viscoelasticity than the conventionally processed mixtures. Thus a new range of products can be developed either as gels, viscous solutions or as membranes. Thus these can be designed for specific applications as medical membranes and pharmaceutical excipients, drug delivery systems and as carriers for the delivery of wound-healing cell signalling macromolecules such as hyaluronan and alginate.

EXAMPLE 6

Enhancing the Biological Function of Demineralized Bone (DMB) in Building New Bone Formation

Background

Human bone, when treated by a process for the differential removal of bone mineral to give “demineralized bone” (DMB), has the capacity to actively induce new bone growth when transplanted into humans (J. N. Kearney and R J. Lomez, Advances in Tissue Banking, 1997, 1, 43-71). Such material has a wide application in oral and maxillofacial surgery, since the osteoinductive capacity of such allogenaic bone allows the transformation of the primitive mesenchymal precursor cells into chondroblasts or osteoblasts, (C. J. Yim, Advances in Tissue Banking, 1999, 3, 87-111). The process of the present invention permits one to transform DMB into a material with greatly enhanced osteoinductive activity, which accelerates and improves the quality of new bone formation.

Materials and Methods

1. Experimental Animals

Ninety healthy male white rats (250˜300 g) were used for this experimental study. The animals were divided in the three groups: negative control, control (using DMB), and experimental (using new processed bone—NPB)). The rats were housed (5 rats in each cage) in the standard circumstance of the Experimental Animal Room at the School of Dentistry, Dankook University, Republic of Korea. They were fed a solid diet during the experimental periods. After 2 weeks adaptation periods, the animal experiments were started.

2. Manufacturing of DMB and NPB

Healthy male rats were sacrificed by cervical dislocation in order to obtain the femurs and tibias of each rat. After procuring the bones, they were kept in deep freezer at −70° C. ) for 24 hours and thereafter crushed to fine particles using a bone mill. The bones were then processed as follows: The particles were stirred in distilled water 6 times repeatedly every 30 min., demineralized in 0.5 N hydrochloric acid for 5 hours, followed by 4 washings in sterile water for 2 hours, soaked in absolute ethanol for 1 hour at room temperature (25° C.), further washed in distilled water, for 3 hours, soaked in diethylether for 30 min and dried in vacuo over night. After these procedures the DMB particles were was divided into various sizes using appropriate sieves. Only 350-600 μm sized DMB particles were used in this study. The DMB was subjected to the gas mediated-radiation processing treatment described above after which they are as designated “New Processed Bone” (NPB). After triple packaging all samples of DMB and NPB were sterilized with 1.5 Mrad γ-radiation.

3. Methods (Surgical Procedures)

-   1) Anesthesia

Animals were injected preoperatively with Oxytetracycline and then anesthetized with Ketamine Hydrochloride (intra-muscularly, 10 mg/kg) and Xylazine Hydrochloride (0.15 ml/kg).

-   2) Surgery:

In the usual manner, after calvarial flaps were reflected, bone defects were created around the middle calvarium with Ø6 mm trephin-burr and a low-speed dental drill. During formation of defects with the burr, cooling water (sterilized saline) prevented the operating site from overheating. Then the three groups of animals were subjected to the following procedure:

-   2.1. Negative control group: the wounds were closed without any     graft materials -   2.2. Control Group: these were grafted with pure DMB (15 mg/each) -   2.3. Experimental Group: these were grafted with NPB (15 mg/each)     -   For all groups closure was performed using 4-0 Vicryl, layer by         layer.     -   All the above procedures were performed aseptically. -   3) Sacrificing the animals

After surgery five animals from each group were sacrificed within 1, 2 and 3 weeks respectively, and then their defect site (in the calvarium) removed with full thickness flap, including periosteum. The sections of the calvarial were fixed in 10% neutralized formalin.

-   4. Fabrication of the specimen

After fixation of the calvarium in 10% neutralized formalin, the bone defects were decalcifying for 3 days with 5% nitric acid. In the usual manner, dehydration and cleaning were performed, after which, the calvarium samples were embedded in paraffin. The paraffin sections were stained and examined under a microscope for bone formation.

-   5. Histologic analysis confirmed the bone formation observations. -   6. Measuring the strength of the interbony-union.

Full-thickness of calvarium, including the defect site, were obtained from the animals at each interval and tested for the strength of the inter-bony-union.

The bone specimens were fixed to the holder of a Universal Testing Machine. The rate of compression of testing machine was 5 mm/min. The arm section of the testing machine was round (diameter 1 mm).

Result (the bone strength in MPa) DMB NPB 1 Week 2.732386 2.873096 2 Weeks 2.823129 4.372102 3 Weeks 2.848112 8.994038

Conclusion

The processed demineralised bone (NPB) is more effective than the control in creating new bone throughout the healing of the bone, and after three weeks the bone is more than 3 times stronger than is the control. This is a significant advance in enhancing bone growth and should have wide ranging applications in oral and maxillofacial surgery, where demineralized bone is routinely used. The potential applications also include orthopedic use, and offer a new approach to the healing of transplanted bone after trauma or disease. Modification of soft connective tissues can also be accomplished in a similar manner to introduce new and enhanced functional properties.

Representative Uses of the New Product Category Representations

-   1. Arabinogalactan Proteins     -   Emulsification of oil in water systems for application as         beverages, oils, emulsions, lotions for cosmetic, medical and         pharmaceutical use.     -   New adhesives for paper and related cellulosics.     -   High molecular weight fibers to enhance bacterial fermentation         in the colon for cholesterol and diabetic control.     -   Gels which can be applied as gelatin replacements,         microcapsules, photographic film and as microbiological media         and in tissue culture. -   Acacia gels for excipient, control release of pharmaceutical/medical     active agents.     -   Membranes for delivery of wound healing active agents by greater         water binding characteristics. -   2. Polysaccharides     -   A standard range of molecular weight standards for gel         permeation and gel electrophoresis.     -   New range of blood plasma substitutes     -   Soluble and insoluble polysaccharide systems for immobilization         of proteins, enzymes, mammalian cells, cofactors and drugs.     -   New gels, membranes and films for medically-related         applications.     -   A new generation of polysaccharide fibers for application as         food additives and ingredients. The molecular weight control         greatly extends the applicability within a whole range of food         products, as thickeners, gelling agents, stabilizers, flavor         pseudoplasticizer and ingredient encapsulators.     -   A new carboxymethyl cellulose ingredient for the baking         industry, to give better dough stability and excellent         resistance to dough softening.     -   A new generation of materials to thicken water systems,         surfactants suspend solids in aqueous media, retard crystal         growth, absorb water from the atmosphere form films, and as         plastics additives and packaging.     -   A range of membranes for chromatography with varying charge,         chiral and ligand interactive properties.     -   A new range of pourable gels, improving gelatin characteristics.     -   Industrial applications as metal chelating polysaccharides for         applications ranging from waste water treatment to precious         metal recovery and metal chilate chromatography. -   3. Protein-polysaccharide systems     -   Application of the new material products as wound dressings,         adhesive pads for surgical use, hemostatic agents, blood         intradermal augmentation, controlled release drug delivery         systems for topical and oral administration.     -   All existing applications of biocompatible hydrogels can be         extended using the process modified materials and the new         adhesion discovery for such applications as coatings for         medically related polymer equipment, vascular grafts and sue         such as for contact lenses, artificial corneas, soft tissue         augmentation, etc. -   4. Tissue Modification     -   Tissues derived from human and animal origin, such as bone,         skin, tendon, cartilage can be endowed with greatly improved         physical and biological performance when used as gratis or         transplants. Demineralized bone can be endowed with up to four         times greater bone healing characteristics after the processing         described. Such bone has extensive applications in orthopedic,         oral and maxillofacial surgery to promote new bone growth after         bone loss through trauma or disease.         Variations and modifications can, of course, be made without         departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. 

1. A modified naturally occurring biocompatible biopolymer selected from the group consisting of polysaccharides of microorganism, plant or animal origin, a protein of animal connective tissue origin, a protein of other animal tissue origin, a combination of at least one of said polysaccharides and at least one other protein of plant origin and demineralized bone, and which is produced by a process comprising subjecting said biopolymer in the solid or dry state, to a source of ionizing radiation in the presence of a mediating gas which is an unsubstituted alkynic gas and annealing the resulting product in the absence of oxygen at a temperature of about 40° to 120° C., and thereafter removing any residual mediating gas.
 2. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process, the source of the ionizing radiation is a γ ray emitting radioactive isotope, X-rays or high energy radiation generated by an electron accelerator.
 3. A modified biopolymer according to claim 2 wherein in the process, the dose of ionizing radiation to which the biopolymer is subjected to is from about 1 to 50 kGy.
 4. A modified biopolymer according to claim 2 wherein in the process the radioactive isotope is ⁶⁰Co.
 5. A modified biopolymer according to claim 2 wherein in the process the radiation is generated by an electron generator of 250 KeV to 10 MeV capacity.
 6. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the unsubstituted alkynic gas is acetylene.
 7. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process annealing is effected in the presence of the mediating gas, an inert gas or in vacuo.
 8. A modified biopolymer according to claim 7 wherein in the process the inert gas is nitrogen or helium.
 9. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process removal of any residual mediating gas is effected by aerating the system and optionally, additionally applying vacuum.
 10. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the biopolymer is a polysaccharide of plant origin.
 11. A modified biopolymer according to claim 10 wherein in the process the polysaccharide is dextran, pullulan, xanthan, carageenan or pectin.
 12. A modified biopolymer according to claim 10 wherein in the process the biopolymer is a polysaccharide of animal origin.
 13. A modified biopolymer according to claim 12 wherein in the process the polysaccharide is hyaluronan, or a proteoglycan.
 14. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the biopolymer is a protein of plant origin.
 15. A modified biopolymer according to claim 14 wherein in the process the protein is an arabinogalactan.
 16. A. modified biopolymer according to claim 15 wherein in the process the arabinogalactan is an acacia plant exudate.
 17. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the biopolymer is a protein of animal connective, or other tissue origin.
 18. A modified biopolymer according to claim 17 wherein in the process the protein is of connective tissue origin and is collagen or gelatin.
 19. A modified biopolymer according to claim 17 wherein in the process the protein is casein.
 20. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the biopolymer is a combination of at least one said polysaccharide and one said protein.
 21. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the biopolymer is demineralized bone.
 22. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the biopolymer to be modified is characterized by the absence of any functionalizing groups.
 23. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the modified biopolymer retains the same degree of biocompatibility as the starting material.
 24. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the modifications to the treated biopolymer include (a) increasing the molecular weight to endow the biopolymer with increased emulsifiability and water binding ability; (b) endowing the biopolymer, when in aqueous solution, with the ability to achieve a desired degree of viscosity or viscoelasticity; and (c) enabling the biopolymer to be converted into hydrophilic gels of predetermined size and micromechanical properties.
 25. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the biopolymer to be modified is carboxymethyl cellulose (“CMC”), a mixture of CMC and dextran or a mixture of CMC and pectin.
 26. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the biopolymer to be modified further includes polyvinyl pyrrolidone (“PVP”).
 27. A modified biopolymer according to claim 26 wherein in the process the biopolymer is a mixture of PVP and dextran or an arabinogalactan.
 28. A modified biopolymer according to claim 1 wherein in the process the process is conducted at atmospheric pressure.
 29. A modified tissue of animal origin, which is produced by a process comprising subjecting said tissue sample or a component thereof in the solid, or dry state, to a source of ionizing radiation in the presence of a mediating gas which is an unsubstituted alkynic gas and annealing the resulting product in the absence of oxygen at a temperature of about 40° to 120° C., and thereafter removing any residual mediating gas.
 30. A modified tissue of animal origin according to claim 29 wherein in the process the tissue is bone and the ionizing radiation is a γ-ray emitting radioactive isotope, X-rays or high energy radiation generated by an electron accelerator.
 31. A modified tissue of animal origin according to claim 30 wherein in the process the bone is whole bone or demineralized bone.
 32. A modified tissue of animal origin according to claim 31 wherein in the process the tissue is soft tissue.
 33. A modified biopolymer according to claim 10 wherein in the process the polysaccharide is an acacia exudate gum.
 34. A modified biopolymer according to claim 13 wherein in the process the polysaccharide is hylan. 